The contribution of Marie Skłodowska-Curie to the development of modern oncology

At the end of 19th century a few fundamental discoveries changed diagnostic and therapeutic possibilities in medicine and, particularly, in oncology: in 1895 Wilhelm Roentgen from Germany discovered X-rays, in 1886 Henry Becquerel described the phenomenon of radioactivity of uranium, and in 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie discovered radium and polonium. In 1903 the Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded jointly to Henry Becquerel, and Marie and Pierre Curie for the discovery of radioactivity. Maria SkłodowskaCurie received the 1911 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for her discovery of radium and polonium (Fig. 1). The discovery of X-rays by Roentgen was a turning point in diagnostics. It enabled precise evaluation of internal organs hitherto completely inaccessible for investigation. First, it became possible to visualize the bones (one of the first X-rays in history was an X-ray of the hand of Roentgen’s wife; Fig. 2); then, after introduction of various contrast media (barium meal, iodine preparations) other organs could also be visualized: the alimentary tract, biliary routes, and blood vessels. Even now radiology is an essential tool in modern diagnosis and, sometimes, in the treatment of many diseases. Modern techniques are, of course, more precise and sophisticated. Computer analysis of X-ray images has enabled the introduction of computer tomography (CT) scans, which give a very precise view of the internal organs inaccessible with classical methods. It is interesting to know that to obtain a simple X-ray in the 1890s required more than 30 minutes of exposure. Despite further sophistication of the equipment, for example helix CT scan and NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance), the discovery of X-rays remains the basis of the technique. Natural radioactivity, discovered by Becquerel and Marie and Pierre Curie at the same time, led to new therapeutic and diagnostic methods in medicine. First clinical applications of radioactive substances were undertaken very soon after. As early as 1899 Tage Sjoergren from Sweden reported the first case of a malignant tumor of the skin cured by use of radioactive source application. Kassabian’s Medical Manual issued in 1907 in Philadelphia gives a list of tumors treated by radiotherapy. Many of these are still treated with this method. Nowadays the indications are more precise and the equipment is much more sophisticated. One should also note that at that time radiotherapy was also recommended in cases completely unjustified according to our present knowledge, e.g. varicose veins, epilepsy, acne, and others. However, even at the time doctors observed harmful side effects of radiotherapy, although first reports were rather anecdotal: in July 1896 newspapers described the case of someone who wanted to investigate, on himself, effect of radioactivity on the skull and the brain—as result he lost all his hair. Discovery of radium and polonium caused rapid and, initially, completely uncontrolled use of radium in all fields of life and medicine. The absence of proper dosimetric methods and proper safety measures resulted in many complications very often fatal—Marie Skłodowska-Curie experienced this herself. Gaining experience in the side effects resulted in elaboration of the modern principles of radiotherapy. Today’s radiotherapy is an essential therapeutic method in oncology. During the first 50 years external beam radiation was based on the use of radium and X-rays. Now we use cobalt Published in the special issue Radioanalytics – Dedicated to Marie Skłodowska-Curie with Guest Editors Boguslaw Buszewski and Philippe Garrigues